FOREIGN TECHNOLOGY DIVISIO: ;~ ~ SOVIET EFFORT TO CONTACT EXTRATERRESTRIAL LIFE 3 FEBRUARY 1967 appeared in 1962, its second edition in 1965. The first edition was revised by the author, translated by Paula Fern, annotated by the U.S. astronomer C. Sagan, and published in the U.S. in 1966 as "Intelligent Life in the Universe" by I. S. Shklovskiy and C. Sagan. With the First Conference on "Extraterrestrial Civilizations" (Byurakan Observatory, May 20-23, 1964) which included all the leaders in radio astr onomy and some optical astronomers, the problem can be said t o have obtained the official recognition of the Soviet Union. Before proceeding to the details of Soviet schemes for the establishment of contact with extraterrestial civilizati ons it is important t o realize that the whole problem hinges on the answers t o three general questions: (1) What is the origi n of the solar system? Without knowing this answer it i s not possible to decide whether planets are rare o r common around the stars. (2) What is the nature of life? (3) What i s the origin of life on the surface of the earth? In spite o f a very large amount of work, both East and West, no definite answers to these questions are a vailable. We have to fall back on vague arguments such as "with s o many stars some of them at least must have planets," etc. It is impossible at the present time to prove or disprove the existence of planets of the size of the earth even around the n earest stars, let alon e life on these planets. Therefore, the existence of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe is at the present time an article of faith rathe r than a scientific fact. In this respect, scientists are in exactly the same position as their predecessors were in the 18th Century, or even the ancient Greeks 2,000 years ago. The only difference considered extremely significant by the proponents o f life in the universe is modern man' s possession of radio communication techniques capable of reaching out to 1,000 light years and more. How to utilize this capability is the subject of animated discus s ion among the radio astronomers in the West and the USSR. SECTION II EXISTENCE OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL LIFE 1. General Attitude The Soviets are emphatic that their materialistic philosophy is in complete agreement with the idea of extra- terrestrial civilizations. According to this philosophy, life is a normal and inevitable consequence of the development of matter, and intelligence is a normal consequence of the existence Even the best-informed scientists in the USSR, like Oparin and Shklovskiy, must necessarily subscribe to this crude philosophy promulgated more than 100 years ago by Marx and Engels. However, once having stated their materialistic point of view they often introduce reservations. Thus Oparin thinks that the presence of oceans was the necessary factor in the appearance of life on the earth, and Shklovskiy is willing t o accept the existence of life onl y on the earth, but this would be a "miracle." 2 . What Kind of Life? The Soviets seem to be committed t o life bas e d on the hydrocarbon compounds, that is essentially the same kind of life that exists on the earth, from bacteria t o man. Oparin considers any other basis of life sheer impossibility, and at any rate devoid of any physical meaning . Shklovskiy goes into considerable detail to show by energy considerations that life must necessarily be based on hydrocarbon reactions. Speculations common in the West about the possibility of life based on ammonia, or even inorganic compounds (as in Hoyle's novel "The Black Cloud" which appears to be not only alive but even intelligent) do not occur in Soviet literature. 3. Persistence of Terrestrial Type of Life As conditions on the Moon, Venus, and Mars are known to be severe in terrestrial terms, the problem arises whether even the simplest terrestrial o r ganisms like bacteria can exist there. Experiments to test bacteria and other simple or ganisms under these c onditions are conducted in both the East and West, on a comparable scale. In the USSR, this is done in the Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences, USSR, and probably other places. There is a recent report o f the simulation of conditions on Mars for microbial growth by A. I. Zhukova and I. I. Kondrat'yev (1965) of that institute. The problem has assumed considerable importance as t errestria l bacteria have been shown to possess rema r kable endurance and adaptability in planetary conditions. The danger of contamination of planets by terrestrial micro-organisms exists and has required international cooperation since the introduction of space exploration. 4. Search for Life on Mars Mars is the only planet where conditions remotely approach those on the earth. It was therefore natural that M~rs becante the focus of attention of astronomers and biologists looking for evidence of life elsewhere in the solar system. In the U.S., the center of the study of Mars for a long time was the Lowell Observatory, Arizona, where Percival Lowell's work was continued by E. C. Slipher. In the USSR, an indefatigable searcher for evidence of life on Mars was Tikhov. Tikhov (1875-1960) was a Pulkovo astronomer who had attained considerable international reputation for the excellence of his observational work. In 1909, during one of the great oppositions of Mars, he studied that planet through filters and proved the existence of snow near its poles and clouds in its atmosphere, in spite of the low position of the plane t during observations. This work remained little known in the West, and wa s repeated at the next great opposition in 1924 with substantially the same results by W. H. Wright at Lick Observatory, California. After his r etirement from Pulkovo, Tikhov settled down in Alma-Ata, Kazakh S.S.R., and in 1947 formed there a "Sector o f Astrobotany" at the Institute of Physics and Astronomy of the Academy of the Kazakh s.s.R. The idea of this sector (or section) was to study the behavior of plants in conditions approaching those o f the Planet Mars, that is the Arctic tundra and high mountains. Many astronomers and botanists worked at this section which published five volumes of its proceedings (1947-1960). Although this work did not resolve the question of life on Mars, it nevertheless uncovered many remarkable instances of adaptation of plants to extreme climatic conditions. Tikhov's method of obtaining spectra of plants in reflected light to compare with the spectrum of Mars was later employed in the West, especially with the development of the infrared techniques. With Tikhov's death his section was absorbed by the Institute o f Astronomy. Tikhov's works were published in five volumes by the Academy of Sciences, Kazakh S.S.R. They contain 33 of his own papers on the problems of terrestrial plants and existence of life on Mars. The results of investigations by Tikhov and his collaborators were indecisive so far as the existence of plants on Mars was concerned, paralleling similar results in the West. They s i mply increased the probability in favor o f the existence of such l i f e . The occurrence of intelligent life on Mars is even more difficult to prove than the existence of plants. Shklovskiy's point of view is that Mars once had a civilization which launched its artificial satellites, but is now a dead body. The question of life on Mars will be resolved only with an actual visit there either of instrumented or manned vehicles. For this reason, emphasis is being given to the development of techniques for detecting the existence of life on Mars in both the U.S. and the USSR planetary exploration program. The dis- covery by Mariner 4 of craters on the surface of Mars, however, has little direct bearing on the problem of life there. The can be said of the presumed absence of the Martian Canals. Few astronomers believe that there can be any life on Venus or the moon. An exception is N. A. Kozyrev, a Soviet astronomer famous for his observations of the moon, who thinks that the high temperature of Venus refers to its ionosphere, and the surface may be in a condition to allow the development of life. But even the moon cannot be assumed to be entirely devoid of life. Such is the opinion of A. I. Oparin, the greatest authority on such matters in the USSR. According to the TASS Agency (December 29, 1966), Oparin thinks that organic substances either alive or dead are possible on the moon. Such an idea would probably be unacceptable in the West, but it was only 30 or 40 years ago that W. H. Pickering, an American astronomer, tried to explain various changes of tint in the mJon by colonies of insects appearing and disappearing during the progress of the lunar day. 5. Meteorites and Life Meteorites are the only bodies of extraterrestrial origin that are available for a study in our laboratories. In connection with the problem of extraterrestrial life, a large number of mineralogists, physicists, biologists, etc., everywhere are studying meteorites. The proof of the existence of organic substances in meteorites would support the existence of life out- side the earth, no matter what the ultimate origin of meteorites might be. But in this problem, as in all other problems con- cerning extraterrestrial life, there is no simple answer and no convincing proof of the existence of life. The problem has re- cently been reviewed by A. A. Imshenetskiy (1966), Directo r o f the Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences, USSR, where many investigations of such nature are being carried out. There are three items in meteorites which must be c on- sidered in this connection: (a) Carbonaceous chondrites are stony meteorites which have some carbon matter (up to five per cent of weight) of possible organic origin. At the present time there are 30 meteorites of this class, which can be divided into three sub- classes quite different from each other. At first seemed that this is indisputable proof of the cosmic origin of o r ganic matter, but later researches proved this improbable. The carbonaceous matter is now considered to be of inorganic origin and similar to matter found in terrestrial rocks. (b) "Organized elements" in the same meteorites are small round grains which have been considered as possibly produced by plant spores. The best authority in the USSR on these problems, G. P. Vdovykin, does not think they are of organic origin at all. (c) Bacteria in meteorites have been reported time and again both in the East and West. In every case they were proved to be introduced into the meteorite after its fall on the surface of the earth. 6. Soviet Attitude Toward Science Fiction The idea of inhabited worlds naturally evokes in people all sorts of emotions which are not always amenable t o scientific treatment. In the Soviet philosophy, scientific fiction occupies an honorable place provided that it is not represented as solid achievements of science. Much of what Tsiolkovskiy wrote, for instance, can be characterized as science fiction, and one of the famous Soviet writers, Alexis Tolstoy was famous f or his fantastic stories. Academician Obruchev, the explorer of Siberia, was also a science fiction writer. However, the Soviets have attempted to draw a line separating science fiction from deliberate fraud and distortion of facts well established by science, and some Soviet scientists, principally astronomers, are busy refuting and criticizing sensationalism by writers who exhibit more exuberance than know- ledge. One such writer is Kazantsev, the author of a fantastic tale, "Guest Out Of Cosmos" (1959), which has had its r epercussions abroad also. The main idea is that the Tunguska meteor, which landed in Russia in 1908, was in reality a spaceship from Mars supplied with a hydrogen bomb. This ship blew up over Siberia thus saving the earth from conquest by the Martians. Astronome r Yu . G. Perel' (1959) concedes that a fiction writer may invent anything he pleases, but Kazantsev represents his wild surmises and i gn orant theories as scientifically established facts. Kazantsev, h owever, proceede d to attack official science as concealing from t h e publi c the true situation , etc., thus closel y par alleling the UFO enthusiasts in the U.S. who accuse the Ai r Force of suppressing vidence supporting flying-saucer v i s itations. Anothe r line of pseudo-scientific effort i s directed t oward the discovery o f traces of c ontacts of higher civilization with the earth. In the USSR, M. M. Agrest in 1959 put f orward a n idea that c lassica l myths and biblical stories contain in t hem va gu e miniscences of visits b y extra t errestrial highly civilize d beings. hes e are go d s coming d own to earth, angels f l ying through t he air , destruct i on o f Sod om and Gomorra (evidently b y an atomic bomb), idnapping of people (the biblical Enoch) b y the intruders, etc. The search f or infonrta tion, h owever, is n o t restricted to the Bible. Anything is goo d if it p oints t oward the exi s tence of extraterrestrial civilizations; crude images on rock s in the TABLE OF CONTENTS History of the Preble~ . SECTltON I SECtl~N II Existence of Extraterrestrial Life Persistence of Terrestrial Type of Life on Mars Meteorites Attitude Toward Science SECTl ON III Possibility of Establishing Contact Means of Conwunication . . . . . . . ciat e d Programs, Facilities, and APPE~ DIX I Calculations by Gindilis . APPEl D IX I I Planetary Requirements . APPETOIX III Power Requirement s APPrJI IX I V Papers R a d at t he Byura kan Conference . APPEHDIX V Resolutions of the Byurakan Conference . APPE! IX VI Soviet Radio Telescopes . . BIBLl.OGRAPHY SUPPt. ~1ENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY Sahara, mythical small men in China, Peruvian fairy tales, are examples. More recently, in the Soviet popular magazine, "Sputnik," 1967, Nr. 1, there is an article by Vyacheslav Zaytsev, "Visitors from Outer Space" which is full of such stories. It is stated that the author spent 30 years of his life collecting this information . the credit of Shklovskiy (second edition of his book, Chapter 23) he refutes many of the ridiculous stories which have been propagated very assiduously in the West, p9rticularly in the U.S., where they have been adopted by the adherents of the UFO ~ult. Other serious Soviet writer-scientists like V. N. Komarov ("M.an and Mysteries of the Universe," 1966) also exhibit an exemplary caution . In general, it appears that the problem of sensationalism in science is exactly the same both in the USSR and the U.S. There are scientists interested in the problem of extraterrestrial civilizations and there are writers who want to publish a breath- taking book. There are even combinations of the two. In the USSR, Shklovskiy is not averse to publicizing his own wild ideas. In the West, there are F. Hoyle and George Gamow of the same type. Modern science is so fantastic that the boundary between possible and impossible is fairly indistinct. Some people, sometimes even b~na fide scientists, simply cannot discern this b~undary and mix up solid science, their unconscious desires, and fairy tales into a nightmarish whole. The Soviets cannot escape this situation any more than the Americans and West Europeans . SECTION III POSSIBILITY OF ESTABLISHING CONTACT In view of the complete absence of concrete data on extra- terrestrial civilizations the or:ly possible formulatio~ of the problem is this: AssumiPg that there are extraterrestrial civilizations, what would be the best way of getting in touch with them? This problem is twofold: (1) How can understar.dable signals be transmitted and (2) how can signals from outer space be detected and interpreted? Radio signals from other civilizations, n o matte r how clear ard strong, would have had no significance 50 years ago, since nobody on earth could intercept them-, let alone i nterpret . According to moder~ astrophysics the development of stars is a continuous process and they certair.ly were r.ot all created at the same time. If there are planets arou~d them, and if there is life on these planets, and if there are civilizations, they must be in various stages of development. The extraterrestrial civilizations obviously must be in a similar or higher state of development than our own ir. order to make a contact possible. On the earth, life has existed for something like two or three billion years. Written documer.ts car. be traced for some 6,000 years, while in contrast the use of radio for interstellar communications is less than 20 years old. In other words, the time during which a civilization like ours is in a position to communicate with other civilizations is infinitesimally short in comparison with the duration of life on the planet, and age of the stars. The next question is how long shall we have this ability to co~ttunicate with other civilizations, that is, how long is our civilization likely to endure? The answer to this can be based only on faith and temperament. Shklovskiy thinks that a civilization cannot last longer than 10,000 years for which he is taken to task by his Soviet colleagues. According to the Communist conception our civilization once reorganized by the adherents of Marx and Lenin, will go on forever as all sources of internal friction will be removed. Therefore, the duration of a civilization should be put down as 109 rather than 10 Western writers would tend to the longer time scale. It is, however, clear that the duration of a civilization is something that cannot be decided a priori. Our own civilization may be said to be 6,000 years old, and whether it will survive for another 4,000 years, or 400 years, or even 40 years is anybody's guess. Some thinkers, notably H.G. Wells and 0. Spengler, were very pessimistic in this respect. It is well known that our civilization has had its ups and downs. The ancient Romans, for instance, were ml:lch more highly civilj_zed than their descendants a thousand years later. Therefore, there is no need to postulate a complete destruction of our civilization in order to lose our ability for interstellar connnunication . duration of any civilization is accordingly a guess, and this factor makes all discussions about interstellar contacts very nearly a pure exchange of verbage . Shklovskiy, f o r instance, develops a formula for the average distance between civ ili